The consequences of the peace Unit 2. The new Thirty Years' War Ch. 4 The consequences of the peace S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

British and French view The peace conference American view Promotion of political and economic liberalism (Wilson's Fourteen Points), support to self-determination. Peace should not pursue the punishment of the defeated British and French view The Central Empires should accept harsh conditions, especially Germany. They should cede territories and pay substantial reparations of war, they should not be let recover The British and French approach preavails, but Germany cannot pay all the reparations. Keynes criticizes them S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Europe and the Middle East S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The League of Nations The creation of the League of Nations is the only of Wilson's points which is accepted. It is an international organization meant to solve controversies, its headquarters are in Geneva However, Germany, the USSR and the US do not take part in the League of Nations The British foreign minister Balfour endorses the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine in 1917, respecting the local communities. The League of Nations recognizes the British mandate for Palestine in 1922 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Atatürk's Turkey Mustafa Kemal founds the Turkish republic in 1920 Does not sign the Sèvres treaty, which assigns Western Anatolia to Greece; in 1919-1922 Greek troops are defeated and lose control of Anatolia The caliphate is abolished, secularism promoted, the Latin alphabet introduced S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The Polish independence After 123 years of dependence on Russia, Austria and Germany, Poland becomes a sovereign state again Poland gains access to the Baltic Sea, next to the free city of Danzig Lead by Piłsudski, the Poles try to conquer some Russian territories but fail S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The Irish independence The Irish Republican Army is founded in 1916, it promotes an uprising for Irish independence but the British army suppresses it Britain allows the establishment of an Irish parliament in 1921, which is autonomous but not sovereign. Ireland becomes fully independent in 1937 The problem of Ulster (Irish region mostly inhabited by Protestants) is left unsolved, the region remains part of the United Kingdom S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Signs of crisis for the British Empire Britain loses its grip upon some African and Asian countries Egpyt 1922 Afghanistan 1919 Persia 1921 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Germany from revolution… The Spartacus League (led by Liebknecht and Luxemburg) attempts a socialist revolution in January 1919; it is suppressed by the Freikorps The new German Constitution is drafted in Weimar in August 1919. It has a federalist and social orientation The economic situation remains difficult, political life remains tense and sometimes violent Adolf Hitler tries to make a coup in 1923 but is arrested, he writes Mein Kampf in prison. The Nationalsocialist party is outlawed in 1924 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

…to the Weimar Republic 1925: Germany signs the Treaty of Locarno, it recognizes its western border set in Versailles 1926: Germany enters the League of Nations Despite the US financial support, the problem of inflation becomes more and more serious S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Revolution in Mexico Thanks to the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary, the US continues to be politically active in the Americas Madero succeeds Diaz's authoritarian regime (1884-1910), but he is killed by general Huerta The revolution breaks out (1913): there are differences between Villa, Zapata and Carranza, but they all fight against Huerta and the conservatives 1917: president Carranza promulgates a progressive constitution, which includes an agrarian reform, but the revolution leaders turn to infighting S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Italy approaches the breaking point The peace treaties meet only some of the Italian demands. Italy does not obtain Fiume and Dalmatia (“mutilated victory”) Liberal governments are weak and ineffective. The Socialist Party and the People's Party perform well in the 1919 elections, but they do not manage to form a coalition government Social demands and unrest grow but the government is unable to react; inflation, unemployment and public debt increase S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The socialists' division The Socialist Party is internally divided Reformists Led by Turati, they are a minority within the party Maximalists They favour the revolution, but they are unable to bring it about Communist Party Born of a split of the Socialist party in 1921, it takes inspiration from the Bolsheviks (Bordiga, Togliatti, Gramsci) S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Dissidents in the USSR Internal opposition Tsarists, nationalists, democrats, reformist socialists, Cossacks External opposition Nationalist movements in Finland, the Baltic, Ukraine, foreign troops After defeating the external opposers, the focus is on the internal ones: special courts are established secret police (Cheka) “enemies of the people” are deported in Siberia power is held by the leaders, not by the soviets S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Politics in the USSR The new Constitution of the USSR is approved in 1924 The state is given a federal structure All citizens can take part in the political life However, the most important decisions are taken by the Central Committee S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The Soviet republics S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Culture in the USSR The Orthodox Church is marginalized (atheism and Marxism are promoted instead) Strong efforts are made to fight illiteracy The arts and cinema flourish, especially in the early phase, when they are still avant-garde S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Economy in the USSR War Communism: all properties, banks and industries are nationalized excess agricultural products are confiscated NEP (New Economic Policy), 1921: private companies are given some leeway a fixed amount of agricultural products goes to the state, the rest can be sold on the market S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The USSR as a model The USSR becomes a point of reference and a model for revolutionaries all around the world e.g. Spartacus League in Germany, Béla Kun in Hungary Lenin promotes the establishment of the Third International (communist) S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Political tensions in Italy Peasants occupy large estates, workers occupy factories and set up councils inspired by the soviets Nationalist right associations are established, they use the force against their leftwing opposers D’Annunzio and some volunteers occupy Fiume in 1919. According to the Treaty of Rapallo between Italy and Yugoslavia, Fiume becomes a free state S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The Fascists are born Mussolini founds the Fasci italiani di combattimento in March 1919. It is a nationalist revolutionary movement, rejecting parliamentary democracy Fascists set up action squads against their political adversaries (squadrismo), intimidating and beating opposers Worried by social unrest and the “red danger”, the wealthy classes start to sympathize for the Fascists. The authorities do not suppress Fascist acts of violence S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The success of Mussolini Fascists enjoy increasing electoral success, they enter the Parliament in May 1921 The movement evolves into the National Fascist Party (PNF). It has a double face: a relatively moderate and institutional side in Parliament, a violent and subversive side outside it (action squads) The Facta government is particularly weak: on October 28, 1922 the Fascists march on Rome; Victor Emmanuel III appoints Mussolini head of government S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Fascists take the power Mussolini forms a coalition government with liberals and conservatives Fascist bodies are formally linked to the state institutions: Grand Council of Fascism (appointed by Mussolini); Milizia volontaria per la sicurezza nazionale (Blackshirts) New electoral law (Acerbo Law) Matteotti denounces the rigging of elections, he is killed Aventine secession On January 3, 1925 Mussolini takes on himself the responsibility for the violent acts S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

A Fascist state Fascistissime laws Primacy of the government, the Parliament is weakened (1923-1927) Single party MPs joining the Aventine secession lose their seats; the PNF is the only party Repressive bodies Death penalty is restored; the secret police and special tribunals are introduced Electoral reform New electoral law (1928): voters approve the candidates chosen by the Gran Council S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Opposition against Fascism Communist Party Led by Togliatti, it is based in the USSR; underground activities are carried out in Italy. In 1926 Gramsci is arrested Giustizia e Libertà Promoted by Carlo Rosselli in 1929, it is a Paris-based liberal-socialist and republican organization Liberals and Catholics Quiet opposition, it encourages dissent on the workplace. Key figures are Croce (liberal) and Sturzo (Catholic) S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The popularity of the regime The Lateran Pacts are signed in 1929: mutual recognition between Italy and the Vatican; with the concordat the state gives up secularism Fascism combines traditional ethics with a modern image. It fights against the mafia in the South, but it does not touch upon the large landowners' interests Swamplands are reclaimed, but the new settlement policy is not very successful Italy gains international prestige with the Locarno treaties and the defence of Austrian sovereignty S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Promoting Fascism Party membership Party members receive assistance, preferential treatment, career opportunities School Education is reformed. Attendance is compulsory until 14 years. Humanities are given the highest status Minculpop Mass media are used for propaganda; construction of a collective imaginary based on the Roman Empire and WWI Cult of personality Mussolini is presented as a sort of king S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Fascism and youth The Opera Nazionale Balilla addresses education and entertainment of the youth The Fasci giovanili di combattimento organize sport and military training for men aged 18-21 The Gruppi universitari fascisti gather the students S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Fascist economic policies Initially a liberal economic policy is adopted, to increase production In the early 1930s the regime turns to interventionism (IRI, 1933). The state seeks to influence the economy Economic sanctions favour the adoption of autarchy: Italy should be self-sufficient Entrepreneurs' organizations and trade unions are replaced by corporations. It is a third way between capitalism and socialism S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The US in the 1920s After World War I, the US grant Europe credit The US tend to be nationalist and isolationist (“America First”). Individualism and liberalism are the dominant ideologies The economy is characterized by Fordism: large-scale mechanized production keeps prices low and increases productivity The culture becomes more open, but this is also the time of Prohibition, gangsters and racism S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The crisis of 1929 The American domestic market is unable to absorb overproduction, but optimism and financial speculation are widespread A crisis breaks out in Wall Street on October 24, 1929 Recession spreads to Latin America and Europe, capitalism itself is called into question S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016