Ch. 1 The Belle Époque Unit 1. The age of empires S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The triumph of the bourgeoisie Europe enjoys a dominant position on the world stage Technologic and military superiority Exploitation of the resources of the other continents Centrality of bourgeois and entrepreneurs Expensive and refined life style Hidden aspects exist Marx points at social problems; Freud unveils the subconscious S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Different models of democracy Constitutional monarchy (Italy, Germany) Parliamentary monarchy (Britain) Parliamentary republic (France) Federal republic (USA) They are incomplete democracies: male universal suffrage is introduced in the 19th century, but women are still excluded S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The Third Republic in France After 1848 the ruler and the people are in direct relations The Third Republic is proclaimed in 1870, but it is not very stable (attempted coups: 1877 Mac-Mahon, 1889 Boulanger) The main parties are the republicans and the monarchist/Bonapartist right S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The Dreyfus affair The Jewish captain Alfred Dreyfus is unjustly charged with treason and spying in favour of Germany in 1894 Starting from 1898, a pressure movement led by Émile Zola proves that Dreyfus is the victim of antisemite plotting The French society is divided in two parts: one progressive, democratic and attached to the values of the Revolution; the other conservative, nationalist, militaristic and antisemite S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Secularism in France A law sanctions the separation between the Church and the state in 1905: religion is confined to the private sphere The poor enjoy political rights, but have to be introduced to the Republic: primary education is made compulsory, schools are secular and run by the state The working class expands, also thanks to immigrants; their demands for social justice are not met S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

International Workingmen's Association The First International International Workingmen's Association London, 1864 Marxist camp (Marx) Anarchist camp (Bakunin) Capitalism is a necessary step on the way to socialism The urban working class is key to the class struggle The state, not only capitalism, should be abolished Poors and peasants should plot and rise up S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The Second International Paris, 1889 Orthodox camp (Engels, Kautsky) Revisionist camp (Bernstein) The impoverishment of the working class can be countered, noticeably through reformist policies Dialectical materialism: capitalism is destined to collapse; the active role of the working class is downplayed S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Revolutionary socialism Georges Sorel Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Liebknecht Trade unions have a key role in demolishing the system. General strikes should be used to bring about the revolution Workers' masses should unite across borders in order to promote a new international socialist society S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The nationalist reaction Beside socialism, nationalism spreads Linguistic, literary, historical and geographic traits of the people are stressed and sometimes distorted or invented The masses are nazionalized through the school and the military service Nationalism turns into racism, imperialism and antisemitism S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

A new political era begins 1900 as a turning point for Italy Workers' demonstrations are violently repressed (e.g. Milan 1898) The socialist party is outlawed The anarchist Gaetano Bresci kills king Umbert I A new political era begins Giovanni Giolitti's governments: advent of the mass society and social reforms S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Giolitti and social reconciliation Giolitti cooperates with Filippo Turati's reformist socialists; they do not enter the government but vote with the majority in some occasions Primary education is free for everyone The Parliament approves laws against child labour, public employees should not work more than 8 hours per day New systems for retirement and health assistance are established S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Giolitti's economic policy The income of the state increases as a consequence of Giolitti's reforms The railways are nationalized in 1905 Development of iron industry (Bagnoli, Piombino) and hydroelectric energy. The automobile industry is born (Fiat, Alfa, Lancia) S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Limits of Giolitti's policies Giolitti does not introduce an agrarian reform (large estates endure in the South) Illitteracy remains very high in the South (60% of the people) Unemployment causes emigration, especially in the South S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

The opposers of Giolitti Giolitti is opposed by the conservatives, led by Sidney Sonnino Liberals and Catholics criticize Giolitti for his “reformism without reforms” Gaetano Salvemini argues that Giolitti relies on the mafia to orient voters and influence elections S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016

Turning to Catholics and nationalists Giolitti introduces the universal male suffrage in 1912 He makes a deal with the Catholics (Gentiloni Pact): Catholics will support him in return for the recognition of Catholic schools and the withdrawal of the law on divorce Giolitti launches a colonial enterprise in Libya On the eve of World War I the government goes to Salandra, more conservative than Giolitti S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016 S. Luzzatto, Dalle storie alla Storia © Zanichelli editore 2016